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In addition to the rating codes, agencies typically supplement the current assessment with indications of the chances for future upgrades or downgrades over the medium term. Until the early s, bond credit ratings agencies were paid for their work by investors who wanted impartial information on the credit worthiness of securities issuers and their particular offerings. Credit rating agencies registered as such with the SEC are » nationally recognized statistical rating organizations «. Ratings play a critical role in determining how much companies and other entities that issue debt, including sovereign governments, have to pay to access credit markets, i. Namespaces Article Talk.

Entire communities were created to support the scientific and industrial aspects of the nuclear efforts in Los Alamos, New Mexico ; Oak Ridge, Tennessee ; the Hanford site in Washington and elsewhere. In line with the theoretical prediction, this negative effect was strongest when democratic reform transferred power from the middle class to the poor. Public Health Nutrition. Swiss National Science Foundation. These grants require a lengthy process as the granting agency can inquire about the researcher s ‘s background, the facilities used, the equipment needed, the time involved, and the overall potential of the scientific outcome. Icelandic Centre for Research [11]. Meanwhile, allied countries in the late s and s committed monumental resources to wartime scientific research.